The incarceration rate in the United States is by far the highest in the world (see Trauma Matters, Fall 2013). According to a recent report by the National Research Council of the National Academy of Sciences (2014), “with less than 5% of the world’s population but nearly 25% of the world’s prisoners, the U.S. continues to rank first among nations in both prison and jail population and per capita rates” (p.2). Following a review of the relevant research, Wolff, Shi, and Siegel (2009) identified health as one of the overlooked ways in which people inside prison are different from people without incarceration histories, despite increasing attention paid to this disparity over the past 12 years. Based on their review, incarcerated people have higher rates of some chronic and infectious diseases (e.g., HIV/AIDS, hepatitis C, heart disease) and behavioral disorders (e.g., substance abuse disorders, depression, schizophrenia, posttraumatic stress disorder). In addition, they also identified another disparity receiving growing attention: the elevated rates of victimization both before and during incarceration (Wolff et al., 2009).
Reviewing the literature, Miller and Najavits (2012), found that both men and women in prison have histories of interpersonal violence. Although estimates vary considerably, at least half of incarcerated women have experienced at least one traumatic event in their lifetime. Based on their review, Miller and Najavits (2012) concluded that for female offenders, sexual violence, defined as the combined adult and child sexual abuse and assault, is by far the most commonly reported type traumatic experience, followed by intimate partner violence. For incarcerated women, rates of sexual victimization across the lifespan are highest in childhood. Rates of interpersonal violence reported by men are lower by comparison but nevertheless significant. Childhood abuse is reported by 6% to 24% of incarcerated men and by 25% to 50% of their female counterparts. Prior to age 18, physical abuse is more likely than sexual abuse for males but both occur at equal rates for females. Abuse in childhood is strongly correlated with adult victimization, substance abuse, and criminality for both genders. Wolff et al. (2009) underscored the continuation of victimization inside prison for many individuals, regardless of gender. Evidence shows that rates of victimization are higher in prison settings than in the general community. Violent victimization rates, inclusive of robbery and sexual and physical assault, are estimated at approximately 21 per 1,000 (0.021%) in the community (Bureau of Justice, 2006). Rates of victimization for the incarcerated population are considerably higher though the rates vary. Using a sample of 581 male inmates drawn from three Ohio prisons, Wooldredge (1998) found that approximately 1 in 10 inmates reported being physically assaulted in the previous 6 months, while 1 in 5 inmates reported being a victim of theft during that same time frame. Aggregating all crimes, 1 of every 2 inmates surveyed reported being a victim of crime in the previous 6 months. More recently, Wolff, Blitz, Shi, Siegel, and Bachman (2007), based on a sample of more than 7,000 inmates, reported 6-month inmate-on-inmate physical victimization rates at 21% for both female and male inmates–a rate 10 times higher than the overall victimization rate in the community.
Somewhat surprisingly, however, Miller and Najavits (2012) stated that women (“especially those who were homeless, drug addicted or living with dangerous partners prior to incarceration) were statistically safer from some forms of victimization in prison than they were prior to incarceration. For example, the estimated prevalence of sexual assault in US prisons, based on the most recent Bureau of Justice Statistics inmate survey, is about 4.4% (as cited in Beck & Harrison, 2010). Yet, for women on college campuses, the estimated prevalence of sexual assault is from 20-25% (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2009; Youth Violence and Suicide Prevention, 2004). Studies have also shown that incarcerated women with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), report a much higher rate of witnessing violence than the female population in general and that many of them designate such witnessing as their most serious trauma. Miller and Najavits (2012) go on to cite Loper (2002), who indicated some women express a feeling of safety and relief during intake at women’s prisons. Blackburn, Mullings, and Marquart (2008) suggested that escaping homelessness, sex work, violent partners, dealers, and pimps may contribute to a new awareness of the level of danger with which they have lived. It is possible entry to incarceration provides a measure of safety that allows women to identify their trauma symptoms and triggers. For incarcerated males, the picture is different. Based on their review, Miller and Najavits (2012) indicated that for male prisoners the most commonly reported trauma is witnessing someone being killed or seriously injuredfollowed by physical assault and childhood sexual abuse (the rate of childhood sexual abuse is much higher than in the general male population). Overall, higher rates of trauma and earlier age of trauma onset is associated with increased violence and victimization in prison.
Unlike women, men are rarely safer behind prison walls than prior to incarceration. Their risk of sexual assault
increases exponentially when they enter prison, compared to the risk for males in the general population (National PREA Commission, 2009). Male prisoners face an increased threat of lethal violence in male facilities that may trigger more externalizing trauma responses (i.e., aggression directed outwards) and high levels of arousal that can endanger staff and other inmates (Freedman & Hemenway, 2005). Trauma-informed correctional systems may be a means of increasing prison safety, enhancing prisoner rehabilitation, and potentially reducing recidivism rates. The good news: trauma-informed correctional care does exist and is receiving increased attention nationwide. A look at progress in integration and adoption of trauma-informed care by state departments of correction is the subject of the next article in this series.
Submitted by Steve Bistran, MA
This article has been reprinted from the TRAUMA MATTERS Summer 2014 edition. The TRAUMA MATTERS is a publication by the CT Women’s Consortium and the CT Department of Mental Health and Addiction Services in support of the CT Trauma Initiative.
For a complete list of references for this article please visit: www.womensconsortium.org/refer...s_Trauma_Matters.cfm.
Comments (0)